Religious Freedom and Exclusion in Religious Legal Systems: Cases of Bahá’ís in Iran and Ahmadis in Pakistan

Akif Tahiiev is a post-doctoral research fellow at Goethe University Frankfurt. This post contains the substance of his presentation at the ICLRS 32nd Annual International Law and Religion Symposium, 7 October 2025, at Brigham Young University’s J. Reuben Clark Law School.

Introduction

One of the most significant challenges facing contemporary religious systems is the regulation of the rights of religious minorities. Legal systems approach this issue in varied ways, reflecting differences in political philosophy, historical development, and religious traditions. Some states adopt closed-list strategies, explicitly enumerating the communities entitled to recognition. Others employ more universalist frameworks, whereby secular law applies to all, but recognized groups are granted additional rights, most often in areas such as personal status. These divergent approaches shape not only the rights afforded to minorities but also the mechanisms through which exclusion is enforced.

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Discriminatory State Practices Involving National Identity Documents with Impacts on Religious Freedom

Brandon Reece Taylorian is an associate lecturer and researcher at the University of Lancashire (UK).

Introduction

Government-issued identity (ID) documents are commonplace, from passports to birth and marriage certificates to national ID cards.[1] These documents play an important role in civil society, national security, and international travel. However, several states issue ID documents in ways that discriminate based on religion or belief, causing reasonable concerns for those monitoring conditions of freedom of religion or belief (FoRB). This post summarizes discriminatory state practices in issuing national ID documents and their impacts on the freedoms of religious communities and individuals. Surveying such practices highlights the intersection of several FoRB violations, including withholding citizenship from members of disfavored religions and placing undue restraints on the economic and social mobility of members of religious minorities.

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